Medieval philosophy includes in its content. Fundamentals of medieval philosophy. God-seeking is the main task of medieval philosophers

A feature of medieval philosophy is its close connection with theology (the doctrine of God), the pronounced religious nature of its problems and ways to solve them. The defining features of medieval philosophy are monotheism, theocentrism, creationism, providentialism, and eschatologism.

• In monotheism, God is understood not just as one, but as radically different from everything else, transcendent to the world (i.e., going beyond it, as if lying outside the world)
• Creationism means the perception of the world as created by God, and created from nothing.
• Providentialism is the continuous realization in history of the divine plan for the salvation of the world and man.
• Eschatologism is the doctrine of the end of the historical process, predetermined already at its very beginning.

The Christian worldview is deeply anthropological. Man occupies a special place in the world as the image of God, and throughout his life he is called to become like him in sinlessness, holiness and love.

In the development of medieval philosophy, two main stages are usually distinguished - patristics and scholasticism. Patristics (from Latin patris - father) is the period of activity of the "fathers of the Church" (II-VIII centuries), who laid the foundations of Christian theology and dogma. Scholasticism (from lat. scholastica - scientific conversation, school) is a period of searching for rational ways in the knowledge of God and the development of topical philosophical problems within the framework of nominalism and realism (7th-14th centuries).

The problem of the relationship between faith and reason

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The main problem of medieval thought was the problem of the relationship between faith and reason. It can be formulated as a question about the ways of cognition: do we need to have faith in order to cognize the world and the Creator with the help of reason? Or is it the rational development of the world that leads us to faith?

The statement of the problem is connected with the name of Clement of Alexandria. With all the diversity of views, it seems that there are several main approaches that are shared by various thinkers to one degree or another:

• 1) Faith is self-sufficient and does not need justification (Tertullian)
• 2) Faith and reason complement each other; there is fundamental agreement between natural and revealed knowledge, but if we do not believe, we will not understand (Clement of Alexandria, Augustine)
• 3) Faith and reason have their own truths (the theory of dual truth); the truths of science are higher than the truths of religion, but since the truths of science are able to understand a few, then for everyone else, religious ideas have the right to exist, and they should not be publicly refuted (William Ockham). In addition, Thomas Aquinas believed that the methods of knowledge in philosophy and theology are different.

The problem of universals in medieval philosophy

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Another important problem of scholasticism was the problem of universals, i.e. general concepts (from lat. universalis - general). Do they have an independent existence, or are they just names for single things? In other words, in this dispute an attempt was made to clarify the ontological status of objects of general concepts.

The dispute about universals dates back to the dispute between Plato and Aristotle, and took place mainly in the X-XIV centuries. This problem was connected with the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. If God is one in three persons, then does he really exist and in what form?

The first scholastics found it in the introduction of Porphyry, one of the greatest Neoplatonists, translated by Boethius. Here the famous philosopher pointed out three difficult questions, which he himself refuses to solve:

• 1. Do genera and species exist in reality or only in thought?
• 2. If we assume that they really exist, then are they corporeal or incorporeal?
• 3. And do they exist separately from sensible things, or do they exist in things themselves?

There are three areas of debate: nominalism, realism and conceptualism.

Nominalism

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Nominalism (from lat. nomen - name) saw in general terms only “manner of speech”, names that are applied not to the class of things “as a whole”, but separately to each individual thing from any combination; in this sense, this or that class of things is nothing more than a mental image, an abstraction. The nominalists taught that in reality there are only individual things, and genera and species are nothing more than subjective generalizations of similar things, made through equal concepts and identical words. In this sense, a horse is nothing more than a general name applied to both the Arabian horse and the Akhal-Teke horse.

Realism

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On the contrary, realism believed that universals exist in reality and independently of consciousness. Extreme realism attributed real being to general concepts, independent, isolated and prior to things. Moderate realism adhered to the Aristotelian view and argued that the general, although it has a real being, is contained in individual things. (The realist point of view was more suited to Christian dogma, and therefore was often welcomed by the Catholic Church).

Conceptualism

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Conceptualism (from Latin conceptus - thought, concept) interpreted universals as generalizations based on the similarity of objects. In this sense, he was a cross between realism and nominalism. Thus, according to Aquinas, universals exist before created nature in the divine mind as the "thoughts" of God and types of singular things; they also exist in individual things as their real resemblance or their identity with the prototype; finally, universals exist after singular things in the mind of the knower as a result of the abstraction of similar properties in the form of concepts.

The representative of nominalism is William of Ockham; extreme realism - Anselm of Canterbury; moderate realism is represented by Thomas Aquinas; conceptualism ¬– Peter Abelard.

Until the XIV century. realism dominated, and from the beginning of the century, the preponderance goes to the side of nominalism. It was precisely in the dispute about universals that the disintegration of scholasticism manifested itself in the 14th century.

Thus, Medieval thought constitutes one of the important stages in the development of philosophy, where many of the issues that are still relevant today were raised.

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The development of philosophy and philosophical thinking is rooted in the distant past. Epochs, views, philosophers, rules and orders, people changed. In the understanding of society, religion and philosophy stand separately, but in none of the eras these concepts were opposed to each other. They developed in parallel, intertwining and deviating from each other at different times. The era of the Middle Ages is the time when philosophy became as close as possible to religion, these two concepts not only identified each other, but also complemented.

Medieval philosophy: features and characteristics

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Medieval philosophy is a period when there was a change in worldview orientations, philosophers. The norms, ideals of the world and the role of man in it are changing. The periodization of this era has various options. The most established and accepted period in the modern world is the II-XIV centuries. Since it is crossed with Christianity, it is logical to consider it the beginning of the period at the time of the appearance of the Bible. Unlike ancient philosophy, which studied primordial creation and human nature during the three stages of its development, the philosophy of the Middle Ages is associated with theology - the doctrine of God. The following features of medieval philosophy are distinguished:

1. Theocentrism is a reality that determines that everything that exists is God, who is presented as a person above the world.
2. Philosophical thinking of the medieval period acquired a religious character and is associated with the church.
3. Reflections on the supernatural beginning change the worldview of a person. A reassessment of history begins, a search for goals and the meaning of life.
4. Retrospective thinking - "the more ancient, the more present, the more present, the more true."
5. Traditionalism - the emphasis of medieval philosophy is on the denial of innovation, the use of which was considered pride and sin. The value was not creativity and individualism, but adherence to traditions.
6. Authoritarianism is an appeal to the Bible.
7. Commentary. The commentary genre in the Middle Ages prevailed over other genres.
8. The source of philosophical knowledge (Holy Scripture) is not amenable to analysis or criticism, only its interpretation is allowed.
9. Didicticism is inherent in the philosophy of the Middle Ages. Therefore, philosophy acquires the character of teaching, preaching.

In addition to theocentrism, the following features are also characteristic of medieval philosophy:

1. Monotheism - God is not only one, but also different from all things.
2. Creationism is the understanding of the world as God's creation from nothing.
3. Providentialism is the continuous implementation of the divine plan - the salvation of the world and man, throughout history.
4. Eschatologism is the doctrine of the end of the historical process, and the presentation of man as a special being, which is like God in sinlessness, holiness and love.

Development of medieval philosophy

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The philosophy of the Middle Ages was devoid of skepticism and the previous period - antiquity. The world no longer seemed understandable and comprehensible, its knowledge came through faith. There are three stages in the development of medieval philosophy:

1. Patristics is the literature left by the Church Fathers. Such were considered spiritual mentors with a certain teaching authority. Over time, this concept expanded its meaning, and began to consist of 4 main features: the sanctity of life, antiquity, orthodoxy of teaching, official acceptance of the church. The foundations of Christian dogmas were laid in patristics. True philosophy was equated with theology. According to the role in society, patristics is divided into apologetic and systematic, according to the linguistic criterion - into Greek and Latin, or into Eastern and Western. The most important issue of patristics was the question of the correlation of faith and knowledge, religion and philosophy. Religion is based on faith, and philosophy on knowledge. Since this was the time of the dominance of Christianity, the primacy of religion was undeniable, but it was necessary to come to the conclusion what to do with philosophy: leave it as a support for religion, and then weave it into a tight thread, or reject it as an ungodly occupation that harms religion and faith.
2. Scholasticism is the maximum subordination of theology, the unification of dogmatic premises and rationalistic methods, an interest in formal logical problems. The goal of scholasticism is the availability of dogma for ordinary people. Early scholasticism revived interest in knowledge. The main problems in the development of early scholasticism were: the relationship of faith and knowledge, the problem of universals, the harmonization of Aristotelian logic and other forms of knowledge, the harmonization of mysticism and religious experience. The heyday of scholasticism is the time of the emergence of universities and the widespread dissemination of the works of Aristotle. Late scholasticism is the time of the decline of medieval philosophy. Old school systems are subject to criticism, new ideas are not introduced.
3. Mysticism is the comprehension of the religious practice of the unity of man with God. Mystical teachings are filled with irrational and intuitive features, often with deliberate paradox.

Worldview in the period of philosophy of the Middle Ages

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Since Christianity was the basis of the spiritual life of the Middle Ages, life itself in this period acquired characteristic features. The life of a medieval person is perceived as a path to atonement for sins, an opportunity to restore harmony between God and man. This is due to the sin of Adam and Eve, which Jesus began to atone for. Man is god-like, and Jesus shares redemption with man.

The very concept of “man” is divided into “soul” and “body”. The “soul” is the person himself, since God breathed the soul into the person, and the “body” is contemptible and sinful. A person in this world must atone for sins, receive justification at the Last Judgment and unquestioningly obey the Church.

The picture of the world for a medieval person was formed from the images and interpretations of the Bible.

The attitude to the appearance of a person, in comparison with the period of antiquity, when beautiful bodies and muscular figures were sung, has changed. During the Middle Ages, human beauty is the triumph of the spirit over the body.

The explanation of the world rests on the division into two poles: soul and body, heaven and earth, God and nature.

Any human activity was regarded in line with religious ideas. Everything that was contrary to religious dogmas was prohibited at the level of laws. Any conclusions and opinions were subject to biblical censorship.

Such features of worldview in the Middle Ages led to the fact that science did not just stand still, but moved backward. Any innovations and ideas were suppressed. Limiting and restraining the development of science soon acquired a persistent character.

Problems of Philosophy of the Middle Ages

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The time frame of the philosophy of the Middle Ages determines its continuation of antiquity, but this is a new system of understanding God, the World and man. The main idea of the philosophy of the Middle Ages is theocentrism. The main problems considered in the era of medieval philosophy are:

1. Attitude towards nature. Nature is no longer regarded as something independent, since God stands above everything, who is subject to the creation of nature and miracles. Ancient knowledge of nature is a thing of the past, now attention is focused on the study and knowledge of God, the human soul. This situation of understanding nature changes somewhat in the late Middle Ages, but even then nature is perceived only as symbolic images. The world is given to man not only for the benefit, but also for teaching.
2. Man is the image and likeness of God. The definition of the concept of "man" at all times was diverse, and the Middle Ages was no exception. The main definition was that man is the image and likeness of God. Plato and Aristotle came to the conclusion that man is a rational animal. In connection with this interpretation, the question arose - what is more in a person - a rational principle or an animal? What qualities are essential in a person, and what are secondary? As well as the biblical understanding of man, it also raised questions - if a person is the likeness of God, then what properties of God can be attributed to him? After all, man is not omnipotent and not infinite.
3. The problem of soul and body. Christian doctrine says that God became incarnate in man to atone for the sins of man and save the world. Pre-Christian teachings considered the difference and incompatibility of the divine and human nature.
4. The problem of self-knowledge (mind and will). God gave man free will. Will, in the era of medieval philosophy, is brought to the fore, in contrast to antiquity, when the basis of the foundations was reason. Will and God help a person to do good, not evil. The status of a person during this period is not defined. It is torn out of the cosmocentrism of antiquity, and placed above it, however, but due to its sinful nature, it is mundane and dependent, because it depends on the will of God.
5. History and memory. The sacredness of history. There is an interest in the history of mankind, which led to the analysis of memory - an anthropological ability that forms the basis of historical knowledge. Time is no longer considered under the prism of the life of the cosmos and the movement of heavenly bodies. Time is the property of the human soul itself. The structure of the human soul creates a condition for the possibility of time - expectation, striving for the future, attention, attachment to the present, memory directed to the past.
6. Universals are something general, not a specific subject. The question was whether universals exist in themselves, or whether they arise only in concrete things. This gave rise to a dispute between (the study of materiality, reality) and nominalism (the study of names).

Representatives of the philosophy of the Middle Ages

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The philosophy of the Middle Ages found its vivid expression in the teachings of Augustine, nicknamed the Blessed. Augustine is a native of North Africa, his father is an atheist, and his mother is a believing Christian. Thanks to his mother, Augustine absorbed Christian knowledge from childhood. Reflection, the search for truth are the main features of the teachings of St. Augustine. The philosopher was inclined to abandon his views, which he had previously held. Recognition of his own mistakes and delusions is his path to perfection. The most famous works of the philosopher: "Confession", "On the City of God", "On the Trinity".

Thomas Aquinas - philosopher, theologian, Dominican monk, systematizer of scholasticism and the teachings of Aristotle. He received a good education in theology, which was opposed by the family of the philosopher. Despite this, throughout his development as a philosopher, he achieved goal after goal, and got what he wanted. Thomas Aquinas is known for the fact that in his teachings he managed to combine the dogmas of the church and the knowledge of Aristotle. He drew a clear line between faith and knowledge, created a hierarchy of laws, placing the Law of God at the head. Famous works: "The sum of philosophy", "The sum of theology", "On the reign of sovereigns".

Al-Farbi - there is information that before philosophical teachings, Al-Farbi served as a judge. He prompted the philosophizing of his teachings of Aristotle, in which he became interested in studying the huge literary works of his time. Being a native of Eastern culture, Al-Farbi spent a lot of time in thought, self-knowledge and contemplation. He was also known in the field of mathematics, philology, natural sciences and astronomy. After himself, he left a huge literary heritage and students who continue his teachings.

The bright and famous philosophers of the Middle Ages, on which the philosophy of that period was based, were:

• Albert the Great, thanks to whose works, the society adopted the ideas and methods of Aristotelianism;
• Tertullian, who studied and interpreted practical topics: the attitude of Christians towards paganism, Christian morality;
• Duns Scotus, who influenced church and secular life;
• Meister Eckhart, who claims that there is a "divine spark" in every person.

Medieval philosophy - the dominance of religious consciousness, the period of service of faith by philosophy. This period gave the world a spiritual world unique in content and form. Philosophy has influenced the formation of universities and scientific disciplines.

Intro 3

1. The Middle Ages in theses 5

2. Features of medieval philosophy 6

3. Characteristics of the historical period 9

4. Basic provisions of medieval philosophy 11

4.1. Theocentrism 11

4.2. Creationism 12

4.3. Providentialism 12

5. Stages of formation of medieval philosophy 13

5.1. Patristics (II-VI century AD) 13

5.2. Scholastica 14

6. Ideas of medieval philosophy 16

7. Dispute between nominalists and realists 17

Conclusion 19

Literature. 21

Introduction

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Each period of human history had its own peculiarities in the development of science, culture, social relations, style of thinking, etc. All this left an imprint on the development of philosophical thought, on what problems in the field of philosophy came to the fore.

The Middle Ages occupies a long period of European history from the collapse of the Roman Empire in the 5th century to the Renaissance (XIV-XV centuries).

The emergence of medieval philosophy is often associated with the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 AD), but this dating is not entirely correct. At this time, Greek philosophy still dominates, and from its point of view, the beginning of everything is nature. In medieval philosophy, on the contrary, God is the reality that determines everything that exists. Therefore, the transition from one thinking to another could not happen instantly: the conquest of Rome could not immediately change either social relations (after all, Greek philosophy belongs to the era of ancient slavery, and medieval philosophy belongs to the era of feudalism), or the internal worldview of people, or religious beliefs built over the centuries. . The formation of a new type of society takes a very long time. In the I-IV centuries AD, the philosophical teachings of the Stoics, Epicureans, Neoplatonists compete with each other, and at the same time, centers of new faith and thought are formed, which later form the basis of medieval philosophy

The philosophy that took shape during this period had two main sources of its formation. The first of these is ancient Greek philosophy, primarily in its Platonic and Aristotelian traditions. The second source is Holy Scripture, which turned this philosophy into the mainstream of Christianity.

The idealistic orientation of most of the philosophical systems of the Middle Ages was dictated by the main dogmas of Christianity, among which the most important were such as the dogma of the personal form of the creator god, and the dogma of the creation of the world by God "out of nothing". Under the conditions of such a cruel religious dictate, supported by state power, philosophy was declared a "servant of religion", in which all philosophical issues were resolved from the position of theocentrism, creationism, providentialism. one

The roots of the philosophy of the Middle Ages go back to the religion of monotheism (monotheism). Judaism, Christianity and Islam belong to such religions, and it is with them that the development of both European and Arabic philosophy of the Middle Ages is connected.

Structurally, my work is written as follows: at the beginning there is an introduction containing preliminary information on the topic of the work, the relevance of this topic, then there is Chapter 1, in which the philosophy of the Middle Ages is briefly described in the theses, in Chapter 2 the attention is focused on the features of the Middle Ages Chapter 3-does emphasis on the characteristics of the historical period, the main provisions of philosophy are revealed in the fourth chapter, the fifth contains a description of the stages of the formation of philosophy, the sixth contains multiple fundamental ideas that prevailed during the Middle Ages, the last chapter describes the confrontation between the ideas of nominalists and realists. The conclusion contains the results summed up on the work and at the end of the work there is a list of used literature.

1. The Middle Ages in theses

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Until the 14th century, churchmen had a true monopoly in the field of philosophy, and philosophy was accordingly written from the point of view of the church.

Philosophy is monotheistic, God is understood as one and unique. Medieval thought is always theocentric God determines everything that exists.

The idea of creationism: The source of all things is God, He created the world from nothing. The whole world is a free gift from God.

The principle of anthropocentrism. The Greeks were dominated by the principle of cosmocentrism, man was important as part of the whole. In Christianity, man is created in the image and likeness of God, he must become like God, and at the same time he is the master of what God created. The Bible states that man is capable of accepting the will of God as his own. (The Greeks also had the idea that a person, embodying a good goal, through the intellect is likened to a higher being).

Medieval philosophy is philological in its essence, since the world of the Middle Ages is repelled from the Bible - the dualistic world (the clergy is opposed to the laity, the kingdom of God is opposed to the kingdom of this world) The medieval world, if compared with the world of antiquity, is characterized by various forms of dualism. It was the dualism of the clergy and the laity, the dualism of the Latin and Teutonic principles, the dualism of the kingdom of God and the kingdom of this world, the dualism of the spirit and the flesh. And each of them is reproduced in the dualism of popes and emperors. (this is the problem: Augustine in the "City of God") 2

2. Features of medieval philosophy

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In contrast to antiquity, where truth had to be mastered, the medieval world of thought was confident about the openness of truth, about revelation in Holy Scripture. The idea of revelation was developed by the Church Fathers and enshrined in dogmas. Thus understood, the truth itself strove to take possession of man, to penetrate him. Against the background of Greek wisdom, as J. Ortega y Gasset said, this idea was completely new. It was believed that a person was born in truth, he must comprehend it not for his own sake, but for its own sake, for God was it. It was believed that the world was created by God not for the sake of man, but for the sake of the Word, the second Divine hypostasis, the incarnation of which on earth was Christ in the unity of Divine and human nature. Therefore, the lower world was originally thought to be built into the higher reality, and accordingly, the human mind was built into it, partaking of this reality in a certain way - due to the innateness of man into the truth. The communion mind is the definition of the medieval mind; the function of philosophy is to discover the right ways to exercise the sacrament: this is the meaning of the expression "philosophy is the servant of theology." The mind was mystically oriented, since it was aimed at revealing the essence of the Word that created the world, and mysticism was rationally organized due to the fact that the Logos could not be represented otherwise than logically.

2. Because of this, the foundations of medieval philosophy were theocentrism, providentialism, creationism, traditionalism. Reliance on authorities, without which an appeal to tradition is unthinkable, explains the ideological intolerance of heresies that arose within orthodox theology. Under conditions of given truth, the main philosophical methods were hermeneutic and didactic, closely related to the logical-grammatical and linguistic-semantic analysis of the word. Since the Word lay at the foundation of creation and, accordingly, was common to everything created, it predetermined the birth of the problem of the existence of this common, otherwise called the problem of universals (from Latin universalia - universal). Three philosophical currents are associated with attempts to solve the problem of universals: conceptualism (the existence of the general outside and inside a particular thing), realism (the existence of the general outside and before the thing) and nominalism (the existence of the general after and outside the thing). At a time when medieval philosophy was presented as the guardian of ancient traditions (with one of the main ideas - the existence of eidos, images of things before things), realism was considered the only correct approach to knowing what being is; the emergence of nominalism testified to the disintegration of medieval thinking, and conceptualism was a combination of moderate realism with moderate nominalism.

Attempts to resolve the problem of universals opened up opportunities to discover procedures for the involvement of the earthly and heavenly worlds. In the context of a theologically oriented culture, logic, which was both an instrument of philosophy and philosophy itself, was a special way of contemplating God, which made it possible to build a subject - subject relations between Him and man. In essence, such logic inevitably became theology.

3. The medieval word, depending on where and where it was sent from, underwent a double transformation: incarnation (of the Divine word) and disincarnation (when the word was directed from man to God). The word was the highest reality precisely because of its existence in two modes. The world was thought to exist because it was said that it exists. The legend led to existence, but at the same time, any created being, remaining Communioned with the Creator, could not be passive: the thing began to speak about itself, the Middle Ages knew no other thing. Any thing, by virtue of the act of creation by God - the supreme subject, was subjective and, accordingly, personal.

4. The ideas of subjectivity and personality are closely related to the meaning of the incarnate Word, which had no analogues in any of the previous religions and philosophical speculations. Incarnation (incarnation) is not the introduction of God into the body. The appearance of the gods in human form, known to the Greeks, did not signify their becoming human. Inhabiting the body, the gods completely retained their superhuman essence. In Christianity, the incarnation of God includes a sacrifice accepted by the crucified Son of man, that is, it presupposes internal mysterious divine-human relations, the theological interpretation of which is the doctrine of the Trinity. The incarnation of the Word, the acquisition by the spirit of its final reality, means that the logos is liberated from the spiritualistic character. The uniqueness and uniqueness of the act of redemption led to the inclusion of the historical in the sphere of European thought; this gives a very special status to medieval philosophy as a philosophy of history.

The idea of the incarnation of the Word meant that sight and hearing became the most important sense organs, while vision as speculation became a condition for philosophizing.

5. The principle of creationism, underlying the Christian attitude to the world, assumed that the universally necessary knowledge belongs only to God, therefore, the logic that arose in antiquity, designed to identify true and false judgments, ceases to be equal to the logic of dispute. At the human level, ethics begins to play the role of universally necessary knowledge, the purpose of which is to search for regulators for the realization of the idea of salvation. They express self-consciousness, action, conscience in ideas. as a moral attitude to the act, the intention of awareness of the act, personal responsibility. The path to achieving salvation lay through the questioning of one's own soul, directly placing a person before God, that is, self-knowledge is understood as knowledge of God, but done in a certain way: With such self-knowledge, the foundations of thinking and the foundations of faith are mentally placed. Therefore, confession is not only a procedure for communion with God, but is philosophizing, an example of which is the “Confession” of Aurelius Augustine (354-430), where the most obvious is the personal, interrogative, questioning position of philosophy regarding the certainty of faith.

6. By virtue of the act of creating man in the image and likeness of God, by virtue of the ability granted to man of reasonable communion with God, man is for the first time considered as a person whose activity is based on free will. The question of free will is closely related to the question of the Supreme Good, which is God, evil, which is interpreted as a lack of good, and predestination (the spokesman for this idea was Augustine, John Scotus Eriugena, and others. The idea of predestination, however, did not become an orthodox idea). The meaning of free will was associated not with the subordination of necessity, but with the determination of actions by conscience and the free choice of a person (Boethius, Abelard, Bernard of Clairvaux, Albert von Bolstedt, Thomas Aquinas, etc.). The Creator of the world took a pledge to test the spirit with the experience of the world in the form of love or hatred, which was closely connected with the possibility of knowledge: the greater the love for God, the more accurate the knowledge.

7. The divine revelation of truth in Holy Scripture presupposed the necessity of his commentary, which is a verbal meeting of the meanings of Divine revelation and human comprehension. In the speech dialogue, which took the form of a dispute, the possibility was created for the formation of such a dialectic, the concepts of which were simultaneously - ambiguously - directed towards the sacred and the mundane, forming a special way of cognition. The human eye, directed at God, is perfected in His vision. Divine, directed at a person, highlights his mortality, finiteness. Philosophizing is carried out at the moment of reading an authoritative text or at the moment of commenting on it, that is, it is always in the present, where the eternal touches the temporal. This is not an endless improvement in speculation, but an instantaneous response to a thought that simultaneously continues and stops this thought, cognizing and revealing complete ignorance. Philosophy, through commentary, discovered the theological essence in itself, understanding the doubling of the existent as common to the world of people and as the Divine universal, which is why the problem of universals was the center of medieval philosophy.

3. Characteristics of the historical period

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Social heterogeneity, the emergence of lumpen

Economic chaos resulting from barbarian raids

The empire needed a religion capable of uniting various social strata (everyone is equal before God). Throughout the period, a mood of deep despair prevailed among thinking people about the affairs of this world, and the only thing that reconciled to it was the hope of a better world in the future. This feeling of despair was a reflection of what was happening throughout Western Europe.

Icentury: a time of unrest and tyrant emperors. Under Nero, to inspire the emperor, a fire was set in Rome, persecutions of Christians were carried out, their mass beatings were carried out, the first Christian martyrs appeared, which led to the sympathy of many citizens. In general, the persecution continued for 250 years until the reign of Emperor Constantine. Christians were persecuted not for preaching social equality, not for disobedience to the authorities, but for an ideological principle: Christians put the church above the state and refused to worship the emperor as a deity. By the end of the 1st century, the church had acquired a strict organization, the presbyters and bishops were increasingly separated from the ordinary believers.

IIcentury: rest time - the emperors Trojan and Marcus Aurelius. The Church is growing significantly, the main dogmas are being formed.

III century: with the reign of Diocletian, the period of the later Roman Empire begins. Under Constantine, the capital is transferred to Constantinople, Christianity becomes the state religion (the persecution of pagans gradually begins, and the Olympic Games are canceled under Theodosius).

The process of Christianity's growth to Constantine, as well as the motives for Constantine's conversion, have been variously explained by various authors. Gibbon lists five reasons:

"I. The unshakable and, if we may so express it, uncontroversial zeal of the Christians, borrowed indeed from the Jewish religion, but purified from that spirit of reticence and quarrelsomeness, which, instead of drawing the Gentiles under the law of Moses, repulsed them from it.

2. The doctrine of the future life, improved by all sorts of additional considerations capable of giving weight and effectiveness to this important truth.

3. The ability to work miracles, which was attributed to the primitive church.

4. Pure and strict morality of Christians.

5. The unity and discipline of the Christian Republic, which gradually formed an independent and constantly expanding state in the very center of the Roman Empire.

This period is characterized by a crisis of slave-owning production. Large landowners begin to lease land the beginning of feudalism, the cities decline, money disappears, the village rises. A new type of power arises, close to Eastern despotism: the emperor relies on the army, bureaucracy and the church (!). The church becomes more hierarchical, and the change in the character of the church to an increase in disagreement, a desire to return to a pure apostolic church, heresies and schisms arise / A peculiar feature that distinguishes the period from Constantine to the Council of Chalcedon (451) is that theology has acquired political significance. Two questions, one after the other, rattled the Christian world: first about the nature of the Trinity, and then about the doctrine of the incarnation. 325 Council of Nicaea draws up the Creed.

IVcentury: the final triumph of Christianity, baptism becomes mandatory for the entire population of the empire. After the death of Theodosius, the Roman Empire splits into western and eastern, as Theodosius bequeathed it to his two sons Gnoria and Arcadius, who begin to quarrel. On August 24, 410, the Visigoths led by Allaric, sent by Arcadius from Byzantium, invaded Rome. By this time, the Visigoths were Christians and formed the first barbarian kingdom in Spain. The western empire is in decline, while the eastern empire is strengthening and expanding its borders. However, in the 7th century, the Arabs began to disturb her too. By the 10th century, relations with Russia flourished, Russia was baptized, but in the 14th century Byzantium perished under the onslaught of the Turks, and the Ottoman Empire was formed. In the western part, the crisis in the 10th century was replaced by a real flourishing with the advent of the empire of Charlemagne (Kingdom of the Franks). 3

4. The main provisions of medieval philosophy

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Theocentrism - (Greek theos - God), such an understanding of the world in which God is the source and cause of all that exists. He is the center of the universe, its active and creative beginning. The principle of theocentrism also extends to knowledge, where theology is placed on the highest rung in the system of knowledge; below it is philosophy in the service of theology; even lower - various private and applied sciences.

creationism - (lat. creatio - creation, creation), the principle according to which God created living and inanimate nature from nothing, perishable, transient, in constant change.

providentialism - (lat. providentia - providence), a system of views, according to which all world events, including the history and behavior of individuals, are controlled by divine providence (providence - in religious concepts: God, a higher being or his actions).

4.1. Theocentrism

Medieval philosophy was inextricably linked with Christianity, so general philosophical and Christian ideas are closely intertwined in it. The main idea of medieval philosophy is theocentrism.

Theocentrism - (Greek theos - God), such an understanding of the world in which God is the source and cause of all things. He is the center of the universe, its active and creative beginning. The principle of theocentrism also extends to knowledge, where theology is placed on the highest rung in the system of knowledge; below it is philosophy in the service of theology; even lower - various private and applied sciences.

Christianity develops the idea of a single God that has matured in Judaism, the owner of absolute goodness, absolute knowledge and absolute power. All beings and objects are his creations, all created by a free act of divine will. The two central dogmas of Christianity speak of the trinity of God and the incarnation. According to the first, the inner life of a deity is the relationship of three "hypostases", or persons: the Father (the beginning without beginning), the Son, or the Logos (the semantic and shaping principle), and the Holy Spirit (the life-giving principle). The Son is "begotten" from the Father, the Holy Spirit "proceeds" from the Father. At the same time, both "birth" and "proceeding" do not take place in time, since all the persons of the Christian Trinity have always existed - "eternal" - and are equal in dignity - "equally honored".

4.2. creationism

According to the Christian dogma, God created the world out of nothing, created it by the influence of his will, thanks to his omnipotence, which at every moment preserves and supports the existence of the world. This worldview is characteristic of medieval philosophy and is called creationism. (creatio - creation, creation).

The dogma of creation shifts the center of gravity from the natural to the supernatural. Unlike the ancient gods, who were related to nature, the Christian God stands above nature, on the other side of it, and therefore is a transcendent God. The active creative principle is, as it were, withdrawn from nature, from the cosmos, and transferred to God; in medieval philosophy, therefore, the cosmos is no longer a self-sufficient and eternal being, is not a living and animated whole, as many of the Greek philosophers considered it to be.

In ancient philosophy, certain approaches have already been developed in solving the problem of overcoming the dualism of the world and its essence. The Pythagoreans, Plato and his followers laid down the basic methodological principles of the doctrine of the spiritual unity of the world. But neither the classics of ancient philosophy nor the Neoplatonists created the concept of a god-person. They interpreted the One as some kind of original, produced from itself all being, as an absolutely abstract-impersonal individuality. The personal understanding of God was first given by Philo of Alexandria.

The characterization of God as a person was a significant step forward in the direction of the Christian worldview, but it did not fully bridge the gap between God and the world. To overcome this abyss it was necessary to introduce mediating forces. For this purpose, Filogus uses one of the central concepts of ancient philosophy - the concept of Logos.

But unlike ancient philosophy, Philo's Logos appears as a spirit created by God, which is originally the divine mind. In Philo's conception of the Logos, only his identification with the messiah, Christ, was lacking.

4.3. providentialism

Providentialism - (lat. providentia - providence), a system of views, according to which all world events, including the history and behavior of individuals, are controlled by divine providence (providence - in religious ideas: God, a higher being or his actions).

5. Stages of formation of medieval philosophy

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In medieval philosophy, at least two stages of its formation can be distinguished - patristics and scholasticism, it is difficult to draw a clear line between them.

Patristics - a set of theological and philosophical views of the "fathers of the church", who undertook the justification of Christianity, relying on ancient philosophy and, above all, on the ideas of Plato.

Scholasticism - is a type of philosophizing, in which, by means of the human mind, they try to substantiate ideas and formulas taken on faith.

5.1. Patristics (II-VI century AD)

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Patristics got its name from the Latin word "patris", meaning "fathers of the church". Accordingly, this is the period of the Christian Fathers of the Church, who laid the foundations of Christian, and, consequently, medieval philosophy. Patristics can be conditionally divided into several periods:

The apostolic period (until the middle of the 2nd century) is the time of the activity of the apostles-evangelists.

Apologetics (mid-II century - early IV) - Apologists were called educated Christians who stood up to defend Christianity from pagan philosophy. To defend Christianity, the apologists resorted to the help of ancient and Greek philosophy, using allegory and logical evidence, trying to show that the beliefs of the pagans are absurd, their philosophy has no unity and is full of contradictions, that Christian theology is the only philosophy that brings people the same truth for all. The most prominent works that have survived to this day were the apologies of Justin, Tatian, Tertullian.

Mature patristics (IV-VI) - Eastern (Greek) and Western (Latin) patristics are distinguished. Thanks to the Greek language, Eastern patristics is more strongly connected with ancient philosophy than Western. The most famous figures of Eastern patristics: Gregory the Theologian, Athanasius of Alexandria, John Chrysostom and others; western: Aurelius Augustine, Ambrose of Milan, Jerome. The main problems of patristics: the formation of creeds, the problem of three hypostases, Christology, creationism and others.

5.2. Scholasticism

Scholasticism (from Greek"schole" - a quiet occupation, study) - medieval scholarship. It is closely connected with the emerging from the VIII-IX centuries. education system in the West. However, this and new stage in the development of the spiritual culture of Europe, which replaced patristics. It was based on patristic literature, being at the same time a completely original and specific cultural formation.

The following periodization of scholasticism was adopted. The first stage - from the VI to the IX century. - preliminary. The second stage - from the 9th to the 12th centuries. - a period of intensive formation. The third stage - XIII century. - "golden age of scholasticism". The fourth stage - XIV-XV centuries. - the extinction of scholasticism.

Scholastic learning in practice was a series of steps, climbing which the student could reach the highest. The "seven liberal arts" were taught in monastic and church schools. The latter were divided into "trivium" (from the number "three") and "quadrivium" (from the number "four"). The student had to first master the trivium, i.e. grammar (Latin), dialectics, rhetoric. The quadrivium, as a higher level, included arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. Universities provided an even higher level of training.

Medieval philosophy entered the history of thought under the name of scholasticism, which has long been used in a common sense as a symbol of empty verbiage divorced from reality. And there are certainly reasons for this.

The main distinguishing feature of scholasticism is that it consciously considers itself as a science placed at the service of theology, as a "servant of theology."

Starting around the 11th century, interest in the problems of logic grew in medieval universities, which in that era was called dialectics and the subject of which was the work on concepts. The philosophers of the 11th-14th centuries were greatly influenced by the logical writings of Boethius, who commented on Aristotle's "Categories" and created a system of subtle distinctions and definitions of concepts, with the help of which theologians tried to comprehend the "truths of faith". The desire for a rationalistic justification of Christian dogma led to the fact that dialectics turned into one of the main philosophical disciplines, and the division and subtlest distinction of concepts, the establishment of definitions and definitions, which occupied many minds, sometimes degenerated into heavy multi-volume constructions. The fascination with dialectics thus understood found its expression in disputes characteristic of medieval universities, which sometimes lasted 10-12 hours with a short break for lunch. These word disputes and intricacies of scholastic learning gave rise to opposition. Scholastic dialectics was opposed by various mystical currents, and in the XV-XVI centuries this opposition takes shape in the form of a humanistic secular culture, on the one hand, and Neoplatonic natural philosophy, on the other.

6. Ideas of medieval philosophy

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In addition to the above provisions and features, it is equally important to identify the following ideas of medieval philosophy:

Commandment idea: The commandments are an agreement between God and man, the first list of crimes that a person can commit. A person who transgresses these commandments will be judged not by the ruler or the state, but by God himself. Only faith, and not fear of punishment, does not allow a person to violate them.

Idea of original sin: Adam and Eve broke God's commandment and tasted the forbidden fruit. For this they were expelled from Eden, but became free and independent. By committing the first sin, man proved his right to self-determination.

The idea of the resurrection of the soul: In place of faith in the transmigration of souls comes faith in the resurrection of the soul - now, having died, a righteous person will again find himself not on mortal earth, but in a better world - the Kingdom of God. Life is considered only as a short stay on earth, in comparison with eternal life in paradise, and death is only a departure from it.

The idea of the holiness of the body: Holy is not only the soul, but also the body. Christ is made of flesh and blood, just like man.

The idea of universal equality: All people are equal, since God created them equal, and in paradise people are also equal. For God and religion there is no peasant or king - there is only a Christian.

Hermeneutics: Explanation and interpretation of biblical texts.

7. Dispute between nominalists and realists

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In medieval philosophy, there was an acute dispute between spirit and matter, which led to a dispute between realists and nominalists. The dispute was about the nature of universals, that is, about the nature of general concepts, whether general concepts are secondary, that is, the product of the activity of thinking, or whether they are primary, real, exist independently.

The transition to the feudal social system was marked by the decline of the independent significance of philosophy. It was accompanied by the displacement of polytheism by monotheism. The dominant form of religion in Europe was Christianity, according to which the world was created by a single god. The triumph of Christianity was explained by the fact that it most fully corresponded to the social, political and cultural needs of feudal society. In the fight against the remnants of paganism (polytheism), Christianity needed a philosophical way of reasoning and proof, so it partly assimilated the elements of ancient culture, science and philosophy, subordinating them, however, to the justification and justification of the Christian religion. Philosophy has become the servant of theology for almost a whole millennium. The theologians placed God and man as his creation at the center of the new picture of the world. If the ancient worldview was characterized by cosmocentrism, then the medieval worldview was characterized by theocentrism.

Medieval philosophy is characterized by a new approach to understanding nature and man. According to Christian dogma, God created the world out of nothing, created it by an act of his will, thanks to his omnipotence. Divine omnipotence continues to preserve and support the existence of the world. This worldview is called creationism (from the Latin word сreаtio, which means "creation").

The dogma of creation shifts the center of gravity from the natural to the supernatural. Unlike the ancient gods, who were, as it were, related to nature, the Christian god stands above nature, on the other side of it. The active creative principle is, as it were, withdrawn from nature, from the cosmos and from man, and transferred to God. In medieval philosophy, therefore, the cosmos is not a self-sufficient and eternal being, as many of the Greek philosophers considered it to be.

Medieval philosophy entered the history of mankind under the name of scholasticism, which has long acted as a symbol of empty verbiage divorced from reality. The main distinguishing feature of scholasticism is that it consciously regards itself as a science divorced from nature, from the world and placed at the service of theology.

Medieval scholastics in Western Europe saw the task of philosophy in the interpretation and formal substantiation of religious dogmas. In the 13th century, theologian (theologian) Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) systematized the Catholic doctrine. Speaking as a theorist of the spiritual dictatorship of the papacy, Thomas Aquinas in his system likened the power of the pope on Earth to the power of God in heaven. The Catholic religion and the theological teaching of F. Aquinas served as the main ideological weapon of spiritual and secular feudal lords. four

There were serious differences among medieval philosophers on certain issues. In these divergences, the struggle between materialistic and idealistic tendencies manifested itself in a peculiar way. The dispute between the scholastics was about what constitutes general concepts ("universals"). The so-called realists maintained that general concepts exist in reality, prior to things, that they exist objectively, independently of consciousness in the mind of God. The realists were opposed by the nominalists, who taught that general concepts are only names for things, and that they thus exist "after things" and have no independent existence. Their views manifested a materialistic tendency in the philosophy of the Middle Ages.

It would be wrong to think that complete stagnation reigned in medieval philosophy. After a number of centuries, during which the economic and social devastation caused by the invasion of the Germanic tribes and the destruction of the Roman Empire really hindered the development of culture, economic and creative ties, and communication between peoples, in the 11th-12th centuries. a gradual rise in the economy, culture and philosophical thought begins, the works of ancient Greek authors are translated into European languages, mathematics develops, essays appear in which the idea is put forward of the need to study not only the essence of God and the human soul, but also the essence of nature. Within the framework of medieval philosophy, the first, albeit weak, shoots of a new approach to the world begin to break through.

So, medieval philosophy is characterized by the fact that it had a pronounced religious, theocentric character, and along with this, the fact that scholasticism dominated it. 5

Conclusion

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Medieval philosophy made a significant contribution to the further development of epistemology, to form the foundations of natural science and philosophical knowledge. XIII century - a characteristic feature of this century - a slow but steady growth in the bosom of feudalism, its decomposition, the formation of the beginnings of a new, capitalist system 6.

The development of the commodity-money economy in the countries of Western Europe caused a significant economic recovery. Changes in industrial relations inevitably caused certain transformations in the ideological superstructure. As a result, at the end of the XII century. and the first half of the thirteenth century. feudal cities begin to strive to create their own intellectual and cultural atmosphere. The urban bourgeoisie strives for the development of urban schools, the emergence of universities.

The philosophical expression of the awakening of this life and the expansion of scientific knowledge was the accepted Aristotelianism. In the philosophy of Aristotle, they tried to find not so much practical recommendations that could be used in economic and socio-political life. This philosophy was the impetus for the scientists of that time, who were forced to admit that Augustinism had already ceased to correspond to the current intellectual situation. After all, Augustinism, based on Platonic traditions, was directed against natural science research. Augustine argued that the knowledge of the material world does not bring any benefit, because it not only does not increase human happiness, but absorbs the time needed to contemplate much more important and sublime objects. The motto of Augustine's philosophy: "I want to understand God and the soul. And nothing more? Absolutely nothing!" 7.

The medieval dispute about the nature of universals significantly influenced the further development of logic and epistemology, especially the teachings of such major modern philosophers as Hobbes and Locke. Elements of nominalism are also found in Spinoza, and the technique of nominalistic criticism of the ontologism of universals was used by Werkley and Hume in the formation of the doctrine of subjective idealism. The thesis of realism about the presence of general concepts in human consciousness subsequently formed the basis of idealistic rationalism (Leibniz, Descartes), and the position on the ontological independence of universals passed into German classical idealism.

So, medieval philosophy made a significant contribution to the further development of epistemology, having developed and refined all logically possible options for the ratio of rational, empirical and a priori, a ratio that would later become not only the subject of scholastic disputes, but the foundation for the formation of the foundations of natural science and philosophical knowledge.

Literature.

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History of philosophy in brief / Per. from Czech. I. I. Boguta - M .: Thought, 1991. - 590 p.

Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ed.: S.S. Averintsev, E.A. Arab-Ogly, L.F. Ilyichev and others - 2nd ed. – M.: Sov. Encyclopedia, 1989. - 815 p.

Kimelev Yu.A. Philosophy of Religion: A Systematic Essay. - M.: Publishing House "Note Bene", 1998. - 424 p.

Chanyshev A.N. Course of lectures on ancient and medieval philosophy. -M.: Higher school, 1991. - 603 p.

Borgos Joseph. Thomas Aquinas - M.: Thought, 1975. - 504 p.

Thomas Aquinas. The sum of theology (excerpts) // Anthology of world philosophy. In 4 volumes / Ed. V.V. Sokolov and others. M .: Thought, 1969. - 1972.

Etienne Gilson "Philosopher and Theology" - M .: Gnosis, 1995 (translated from the French edition Etienne Gilson "Le philosophe et la théologie- Paris, 1960)

Fundamentals of Religious Studies Textbook / Yu. F. Borunkov, I. N. Yablokov, M. P. Novikov, and others; Ed. I. N. Yablokova.- M .: Higher. school, 1994.- 368 p.

1 Kimelev Yu.A. Philosophy of Religion: A Systematic Essay. - M.: Publishing House "Note Bene", 1998. - 424 p.

Philosophy as a source medieval philosophy………2 Theocentrism is a fundamental principle philosophy middle ages. 2. Main stages of development medieval philosophy: a) apologenetics...

Medieval philosophy (11)

>Abstract >> Philosophy

Aquinas. Main features medieval philosophy. Medieval theological philosophy called the leading philosophical ... as fundamental in medieval philosophy and theology. Fundamental dogmas medieval philosophy and theologies were...

Medieval philosophy (5)

>Abstract >> Philosophy

Regulations philosophy middle ages…………….4 pp. Displaying Christian teachings and ancient philosophy on ideology philosophy middle ages……………………....5 pages

1. Features of medieval philosophy.

2. The period of patristics (Augustine Aurelius).

3. Scholasticism (Thomas Aquinas).

4. Basic principles of the Christian worldview.

Medieval philosophy is that period in the history of European philosophy that is directly connected with the Christian religion. Christianity originated in the 1st century AD. in Palestine, and then spread throughout the Roman Empire. From the end of the 4th century, it becomes the dominant religion of Rome. This leads to dramatic changes in the relationship between religion and philosophy. If in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome religion and philosophy coexisted together, without encroaching on each other's independence, then in the Middle Ages philosophy fell into complete dependence on the Christian religion. The Christian church at this time becomes a complete monopoly in the field of education and culture. Therefore, all social, spiritual and scientific life proceeded under the direct and strict control of church authorities.

An eye feature of medieval philosophy was that all the philosophers of this period were clergymen. Their main specialization was theology and theology. And they turned to philosophy for only one purpose, in order to rationally confirm the Christian dogma and cult with its help, and thereby strengthen the position of Christianity.

The first period in the development of medieval Christian philosophy was defined as patristics (5-8 centuries). The term "patristics" comes from the word "pater" - father, meaning the holy father of the church. The main task that the Church Fathers solved was the task of developing the foundations of the Christian worldview. In order for this worldview to become accessible to the general population, it was necessary either to create a new terminology to reveal the most important provisions of the Christian religion, or to rely on existing ones. To solve this problem, the ideologists of Christianity turned to the philosophy of Plato and Neoplatonism, since by its nature it is closest to the Christian faith.

Outstanding representatives of patristics were Basil the Great, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen, and others. But Augustine Aurelius or the Blessed (354-430) made the greatest contribution to the development of Christian philosophy in the epoch of patristics.

Augustine carried out what his predecessors had only planned for - he made God the center of philosophical thinking. God is the highest essence, he created the world from nothing, i.e. not only order and arrangement, but matter itself. God not only created the world, but also constantly preserves it, which means that the process of creation continues.

Augustine interprets the human soul in the spirit of Plato's ideas. The soul does not contain anything material, it has only the function of thinking, will, memory, but has nothing to do with biological functions. The soul differs from the body in perfection. Such an understanding also existed in Greek philosophy, but Augustine was the first to assert that this perfection comes from God, that the soul is like God and is immortal. He was one of the first to raise the question of the human personality. A person is not just a "servant of God", he is a person connected with God. A person is a likeness of God, which means that he can have a will and direct it to faith or unbelief, to good or evil. Evil is the lack of good, it is rooted in human nature. God is not responsible for the existence of evil. God is the highest grace, love and goodness. After the martyrdom of Christ, every person is given the opportunity of salvation if he believes in God, turns away from evil and directs his will towards good.

Augustine Aurelius, in accordance with Hellenistic philosophy, believed that the purpose and meaning of human life is happiness. Happiness can only be achieved in God. A person can come to God through reason (knowledge of God) or through faith, manifested in the will of a person. Faith and reason complement each other: "Understand that you may believe, believe that you may understand." But the mind is still unreliable, prone to errors, so faith is higher than reason.

Augustine also stood at the origins of the "philosophy of history". He rejects the ancient understanding of history as an eternal repetition, a whirlwind of historical processes. History is determined by divine providence, it has meaning and direction towards the ultimate goal. The movement towards the final goal is the movement from the "earthly city" (the state) to the "city of God" (the kingdom of Christ, which the church serves as a prototype). Historical progress is expressed in the increase in people who turned away from paganism and came to Christianity. The history of mankind will end with the second coming of Jesus Christ, the Last Judgment and the establishment of the Kingdom of God.

The second period in the development of medieval philosophy is called scholasticism (9th-15th centuries). The term "scholasticism" was formed from the Latin word "schola" (school) and means school educational philosophy. All those who were engaged in the sciences and especially philosophy were called at that time scholastics.

Representatives of scholasticism understood that the philosophy of Plato, which was followed by Augustine Aurelius and most of the philosophers of the Middle Ages, leads to a confrontation between spirit and nature. And this, in turn, led to the formation of heresies (Manichaeans, Albigenses, Waldensians, Cathars, etc.), who claimed that nature and the human body are the creation of Satan. Scholastics saw the theoretical roots of heresies in deviations from Platonism. But it was possible to criticize the great Plato, relying on no less significant authority. Therefore, scholastics turn to Aristotle as the first and greatest critic of Plato. As a result, the influence of Plato's philosophy begins to fall and the influence of Aristotle begins to spread, with his clearly expressed position of realism and developed logical thinking.

Prominent representatives of this trend were Eriugena, Benaventure, Anselm of Cantebria, Roscelin, Abelard, Albert the Great and others. However, Thomas Aquinas (1225 - 1274) made the greatest contribution to the development of scholasticism.

The whole philosophy of Thomas begins with the category of "ens" (real being). And this real being is the way it is given to a person in his sensations. Things may change, but things don't change, they just take on different forms. For example, water becomes steam and ice. In fact, they are the same thing, but they are different in form. It follows from this that real being includes the following proposition: a thing is what it is + what it can become. Things are constantly changing, which means they are not complete, but all things are part of something complete, whole, some kind of ultimate fullness of being. This ultimate fullness of being is God. God is a finite reality, his forces are constantly in action.

Based on this concept of being, Thomas Aquinas clearly separates the areas of faith and science. The task of science is to explain the laws of the world (real being). The source of knowledge of the world is not participation in divine ideas, but experience and sensory perception. The human mind processes the information received through the senses and comes to the truth. And although sensory knowledge is objective and true, it covers only the real physical world. The whole fullness of being, i.e. God can only be known through faith. Theology should be the study of this supernatural world. Philosophy, on the other hand, should serve as theology, that which explains religious dogmas in terms of reason and logically refutes any arguments against faith. This is where its role should be limited.

Based on reason, Thomas Aquinas believed, one can even prove the existence of God. In his works, he gives five logical proofs for the existence of God.

1. In this world, everything moves, and every thing is set in motion by something else. It is impossible, however, to continue this series to infinity, for in such a case there would be no prime mover, and consequently, that which is moved by it, since the next moves only because it is moved by the first. This determines the necessity of the existence of the first engine, which is God.

2. There are a number of operating causes in the world. But it is impossible for something to be the efficient cause of itself, because then it would have to be before itself, which is absurd. In such a case, it is necessary to recognize the first efficient cause, which is God.

3 . The third proof follows from the relationship between the contingent and the necessary. When studying the chain of this relationship, one cannot go to infinity either. The contingent depends on the necessary, which has its necessity either in another necessity or in itself. In the end it turns out that there is the first necessity - God.

4 .The fourth proof is the degrees of qualities that follow one after another, which are everywhere, in everything that exists, therefore there must be the highest degree of perfection, and again it is God.

5 .At the basis of this proof lies the utility that is manifested in all of nature. Everything, even seemingly random and useless, is directed towards some goal, has meaning, utility. Therefore, there is an intelligent being who directs all natural things to a goal, and that is God.

Thomas Aquinas, being a follower of Aristotle, was interested not only in the "city of God", but also in the "city of the earth", the center of his interests were not only spiritual, but also social problems. Like Aristotle, he identifies society and the state. The state exists then to take care of the common good. But he resolutely opposes social equality, society should be class-based, all people should be divided into masters and subjects. Subjects must obey the masters, humility is their main virtue, like all Christians in general. The best form of state is a monarchy, the Monarch must be in his kingdom what the soul is in the body, and God in the world.

The main goal and meaning of human existence is the achievement of heavenly bliss. It is no longer the state that leads a person to it, but the church. The role of the church is higher than the role of the state, and therefore the rulers of the secular world must be subordinate to the hierarchs of the church, in particular the Pope.

Having done tremendous intellectual work, Christian theologian philosophers have created an integral religious picture of the world. This worldview embraced most of the civilized world and had a decisive influence on the further development of mankind. Consider the main features of the Christian worldview.

Creationism and theocentrism. According to Christian doctrine, God created the world out of "nothing", created it by an act of his will, thanks to his omnipotence. Divine omnipotence continues to support the existence of the world every moment. The maintenance of the existence of the world is the constant creation of it by God again. If the creative power of God ceased, the world would immediately return to non-existence.

Unlike the ancient gods, who were almost all identified with nature, the Christian God stands above nature, on the other side of it, and therefore is a transcendent God. All the attributes that ancient philosophers endowed with being are attributed to him: God is eternal, unchanging, immense, self-sufficient, etc. But the main difference of the Christian God is that, for all that, He is a Personality. Therefore, God is not only the highest being, but also the highest Mind, the highest Truth, the highest Love, the highest Good and the highest Beauty.

Anthropocentrism. The essence of this doctrine lies in the assertion of the exclusive role of man among the creations of God. According to the Bible, God did not create man along with all creatures, but on the sixth day of creation in "his image and likeness." Hence the conclusion that man is the crown of creation, he is the center of the universe and the ultimate goal of creation.

What exactly are the properties of God that make up the essence of the human person? It is clear that outwardly man has nothing in common with God. The divine qualities of a person are enclosed in the spiritual sphere - this is the mind, conscience, and will. Man, like God, is given the ability to think, to distinguish between good and evil, to experience. Free will allows a person to make a choice in favor of good or evil. The first people (Adam and Eve) made this choice unsuccessfully. They chose evil and thereby committed the fall. From now on, the nature of man turned out to be corrupted, he is constantly affected by the fall. A person is not able to overcome his sinful inclinations by his own strength. He constantly needs divine help, the action of divine grace. You can get this help only in the Church of Christ, which is the mediator between God and people.

providentialism. The world does not develop by itself, but according to God's providence. God's providence extends to the entire surrounding world and gives natural and social processes a meaningful and purposeful character. In the philosophy of history, providentialism claims that the divine plan predetermines the history of people, it breaks through all historical events and facts. It remains for people to either contribute to the implementation of this plan, and thus work for the salvation of the world and man, or to oppose it, for which God subjects people to various punishments.

Eschatologism. To what end is the course of human history directed? The ultimate goal of the historical process is the Kingdom of God. Christian theologians portray this kingdom as a true, beautiful, perfect world, in which a person will be in complete union with God.

When will humanity achieve this goal? Then, when the end of the world comes, the second coming of Jesus Christ, the resurrection of the dead and the Last Judgment will take place. Only those who receive forgiveness from God will have eternal life in the Kingdom of God.

How can a person be saved and reach the Kingdom of Christ? According to Christian doctrine, even in his original, pre-sinful state, man was completely dependent on God, being in complete unity with him. The essence of the fall into sin lies precisely in the fact that a person separated from God, wished to become equal to God, wanted to live according to his own principles and norms. Having lost contact with God, people are mired in sins and vices.

It follows from this that a person can be saved in only one way - by returning to his original, pre-sinful appearance, through a new acquisition of the "image and likeness of God." And this can be done only through faith and the acquisition of divine grace. Grace is poured out only on the one who not only believes in God, but also strictly fulfills his commandments, as well as the sacraments and rituals of the Christian church. Faith without works is dead!

Questions and tasks.

1. What are the features of medieval philosophy?

2. Describe the philosophical views of Augustine Avrels

3. Describe the philosophical views of Thomas Aquinas.

4. What is the essence of creationism and theocentrism?

5. What is anthropocentrism?

6. What is the essence of providenciolism and eschatology.

Abstract on the topic

medieval philosophy

medieval philosophy

The philosophy of the Middle Ages covers the period from the VIII to the XIV-XV centuries. It was preceded by the time of formation (I-VIII centuries AD) - the period of apologetics and patristics. Actually, medieval philosophy includes early (IX-XI-XII centuries AD), mature (XIII century) and late scholasticism (XIV-XV centuries AD).

Medieval philosophy is closely connected with religion. This determines its content and direction. For this reason, philosophical thought was theocentric, since God was proclaimed the only reality that determines everything that exists in this philosophy. The minds of philosophers at that time were occupied by two most important ideas: the idea of creation - in ontology and the idea of revelation - in epistemology. Dependence on religion did not mean for medieval philosophy its complete dissolution always and everywhere in the religious consciousness. At the same time, for centuries it has determined the specifics of philosophical problems and ways to resolve them. The attitude towards ancient philosophy in the Middle Ages was twofold: on the one hand, the philosophical elements of Christianity developed in contradiction with ancient wisdom, but on the other hand, ancient philosophy was very positively accepted as a means of knowing God, as a philosophical justification for the dogmas of a particular religion. European medieval philosophy turned out to be closely connected with Christian doctrine (“philosophy is the servant of theology”), and Arabic-speaking medieval philosophy was closely connected with Islam.

Among other characteristic features of philosophical thinking of that time, retrospectiveness and traditionalism stand out, i.e. backwardness: the older the text, the more authentic it is, and therefore more true. For Western European philosophy, the Bible, understood as a complete set of all possible truths, possessed such authenticity. It is enough to reveal the meaning of biblical statements to get answers to all questions.

Hence the specific task of philosophy - to decipher, explain the sacred writings (which took place in the so-called "exegetics"). The philosopher of the Middle Ages was rather limited in his choice of the subject of research: it was almost always the text, the word (in this sense, medieval philosophy is philological). However, the symbolism and ambiguity of the sacred texts gave impetus to reflection and suggested a relative freedom of interpretation. "Sometimes the resulting philosophy went beyond not only the interpreted text, but also the Christian worldview."

In addition to traditionalism and retrospectiveness, didacticism and edification are among the specific features of medieval philosophy, so it is no coincidence that the philosopher was thought, first of all, as a teacher. But didacticism stimulated the development of problems in logic, linguistics, and the theory of knowledge. Hence the great interest of philosophers in the discussion, in the questions of presentation of the material. The philosophy of the Middle Ages was to a certain extent conservative, which had negative (slow development of philosophy) and positive (tendencies towards monolithic, encyclopedic) consequences.

So, medieval philosophy is characterized by the understanding of the world as created by the divine mind. This world is comprehensible to man; only the supramental and infinite God is incomprehensible to him. The initial stage of the formation of medieval philosophy is associated with apologetics and patristics.

Apologetics is the "philosophy" of early Christianity. The apologists fought against the pagan religion, against the delusions of heretics (from the Greek "apology" - protection). But they were also the first Christian philosophers who wanted to adapt ancient philosophy to Christianity. The direct theoretical sources of early Christian philosophy were the philosophy of Hellenism (I-II centuries), in particular the ideas of Philo of Alexandria, the philosophy of the Stoics, Neoplatonists. Thus, Philo of Alexandria took the idea of the logos as a link between God and the world (which was akin to understanding the role of Christ in Christian doctrine as an intermediary between God and people); the development of a system of values consonant with the spirit of Christian morality was borrowed from the Stoics; Neoplatonists - the doctrine of the One.

Among the apologists are Justin Martyr, Tatian, Athenogoras and others. Among the main problems solved by philosophy, the apologists included the defense of Christian doctrine, the substantiation of the dogmas of Christianity, and the proof of the superiority of Christianity over other types of knowledge. At the same time, the inconsistency of their position in relation to philosophy is obvious. On the one hand, they exalted Revelation and completely rejected philosophy (this position was vividly expressed by Quintus Tertullian: "The Son of God was crucified; we are not ashamed of this, although it is shameful; the Son of God died - we fully believe this, because it is absurd"), on the other hand, they still could not do without it (the conciliatory line was reflected in the works of Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and others).

Already during this period, the basic principles of religious and philosophical thinking were formed: theocentrism, soteriologism (the orientation of all human life to the “salvation of the soul”), divine revelation (God is incomprehensible and at the same time he is revealed to people through the prophets and apostles of the Holy Scriptures). The problems of all subsequent medieval philosophy are also formulated. It is represented in the doctrine of being (primarily in the development of the idea of creationism - the creation of the world by God from "nothing"); in anthropology (in understanding that a person is “the image and likeness of God”, but at the same time a sinful being); in epistemology (in the idea that through knowledge it is possible to acquire the “image and likeness of God”); in the philosophy of history (through the principle of providentialism and eschatologism - the world develops according to the providence of God, and the goal of history is in the movement towards the kingdom of God).

By the end of III - beginning of IV centuries. The Christological problem, the problem of combining the divine and human hypostases in the person of Jesus Christ, became especially acute for the church. In this era, the Christian church became the state religion of the Roman Empire, so it was necessary not only to formalize Christian dogma, but also to justify and explain these dogmas to believers. The question arose about the systematization of Christian doctrine, about the creation of an ideology of faith. And such a task was solved by the philosophers of the patristic period.

According to its role in society, patristics is divided into systematic and apologetic; from the point of view of the place of origin - into Greek (Eastern) and Latin (Western). In terms of content, patristics includes the teachings of the fathers of the Christian church of the II-VII centuries. Greek patristics includes the works of such philosophers as Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, Gregory of Nyssa, John Chrysostom and a number of others, and Latin - the works of Pope Leo the Great, Ambrose, Ilarius and other thinkers.

The most prominent representative of the patristic period was Aurelius Augustine (354-430), whose works “On the City of God”, “On Free Will” had the strongest influence on Western European medieval philosophy. He systematized the Christian worldview, presenting it as a holistic and the only true teaching, using the principles of Platonism and Neoplatonism, acceptable for Christian doctrine. In the philosophy of Augustine, the problem of God and his relationship to the world is formulated as the main problem of philosophical reflection, and the idea of God as a personified Absolute is substantiated. Augustine developed the concept of continuous divine creation, developed the idea of exemplarism, according to which things are imperfect copies of divine ideas.

He interpreted time as a creation of God and at the same time as a measure of movement and change inherent in all concrete things. He was interested in the problems of argumentation and ethics. Thus, Augustine argued that evil does not oppose good, but is only a lack of good, that sin is a product of free will. The idea of the superiority of faith over reason was expressed by him in the thesis "I believe in order to understand." Augustine created the doctrine of supernatural illumination, put forward the idea of providentialism in history - its movement towards the kingdom of God.

The next period in the development of medieval philosophy is the period of scholasticism. The term "scholasticism" (from the Greek "school", "scientist") indicates that it is not so much a set of ideas as philosophy and theology taught in medieval schools. Scholasticism was distinguished by the combination of the dogmas of Christianity with the rationalist method of their presentation and justification (hence the special interest in formal logical problems). Early scholasticism (XI-XII centuries) took shape in the heyday of feudalism and papal power. It is characterized by the great importance of Augustine's ideas as examples of religious philosophizing. Therefore, if we talk about early scholasticism in the Middle Ages, then in comparison with the patristics of the philosophical thought of this period, there is much less creative freedom and originality, a strong attraction to formal research. Although the connection with ancient philosophy was not interrupted, however, medieval philosophers drew information about it from the comments of thinkers of the era of patristics, and not from the study of ancient texts directly. This period is clearly reflected in the philosophy of John Scotus Eriugena, for whom it was important to prove that there is no contradiction between revelation and reason. This, however, was not about finding the truth by reason (since it was already given in revelation), but about expounding and proving this truth with the help of reason. In his opinion, through reason it is easier to penetrate into the truths of faith, to give religious truth a systematic form, and also to exclude criticism of these truths themselves. In the proper sense of the word, the scholastic method consists in the formal-logical operation of inference. Dialectics, interpreted as logic, becomes the first philosophical discipline.

Philosophers of the Middle Ages believed that dialectics is necessary for a believing person, since it helps him to strengthen himself in faith. However, faith must precede reason.

In the period of early scholasticism, opposite positions appear for the first time in the dispute about universals (general concepts) - realism and nominalism. Realism is based on the assertion that the common exists before and outside of things, i.e. general concepts have a primary, absolute and extrasensory existence (Anselm of Canterbury, Guillaume of Champeau). Nominalism (John Roscelin) denied the ontological existence of general concepts, giving this status only to single objects. And, finally, conceptualism took an intermediate position (Pierre Abelard).

At this stage of development, scholasticism often acted as an opposition movement not only to individual heretical doctrines, but also to the philosophical ideas of the champions of pure faith (P. Damiani, B. Clairvaux). The latter were especially annoyed by the proofs of the existence of God, i.e. rational substantiation of its existence. XIII century - a period of mature scholasticism. Scholasticism developed in medieval universities, among which Paris occupied a special place. Aristotelianism began to play a huge role, gradually replacing Platonic philosophy. At the same time, the philosophical ideas of Aristotle were interpreted in two ways: on the one hand, it was a pantheistic version of Aristotelianism, which taught about a single impersonal intellectual soul in all beings (Sieger of Brabant). (Pantheism is a philosophical doctrine that brings the concepts of "God" and "nature" as close as possible, proceeding from the spiritualization of nature and endowing it with divine properties). On the other hand, there is a philosophical and theological version in which the ontology of Aristotle was subordinated to Christian ideas about a personal God, a personal immortal soul and the created cosmos (Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas).

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) is considered the central figure of scholastic philosophy in Western Europe. The main task he solves in determining his philosophical positions is the interpretation of Aristotelianism in the Christian-Catholic spirit (“On the Rule of Rulers”, “The Sum of Theology”).

By this time, the role of scientific knowledge had grown sufficiently and it was no longer possible to ignore its development.

In philosophy, various options have already been developed for solving the problem of the relationship between faith and knowledge (religion and science; religion and philosophy) - the rationalization of theology and its actual subordination to philosophy (P. Abelard, R. Bacon); the theory of "two truths" in its two varieties: one of them came from the philosophers of the Chartres school and boiled down to the assertion that the objects and methods of science (philosophy), on the one hand, and religion (theology) on the other hand, are different, which means that between there is no contradiction between them; another version of this concept stated the regularity of the appearance of contradictions between the truths of revelation and the truths of reason.

Thomas Aquinas developed his own version of the solution to the problem: in the method of achieving the truth, science and religion differ from each other, but in the subject matter this difference is only partial. In his opinion, there are truths of science that are not directly related to religion, and at the same time, not all religious dogmas need rational justification (they are super-reasonable and their understanding is beyond the power of reason). But a number of dogmas of religion need justification, as this strengthens a person's faith in them. Hence the principle of harmony of faith and reason (however, the priority of faith over reason is not denied).

Significant success was achieved in the 13th century by scholastic logic (Lambert, Sherwood, Lull, Peter of Spain, and others). The creation of the "latest logic" set before this science the task of proving new truths, which was expressed in the desire of thinkers to supplement the already known logical theory with the logic of discoveries. Lull tried to present the modeling of thinking, which required him to formalize logical actions.

Late scholasticism (XIII-XIV centuries) is characterized by an increase in the critical spirit of philosophy, which manifested itself in relation to traditional medieval themes. This criticism was directed against the major scholastic systems of philosophy in the Middle Ages. So, John Duns Scotus contrasted his philosophical views with the views of Thomas Aquinas, primarily in the ideas of individualism, voluntarism, in the rejection of a complete system. W. Ockham, N. Orem defended the theory of "truth duality", opposed to the concept of harmony of faith and reason. Scholastic philosophy was approaching its decline and decline.

Above, it was mainly about Western European philosophy. During this period, philosophy also developed rapidly in the Middle Eastern countries and Muslim Spain. In particular, Arabic philosophy became a link between Greek philosophy and the subsequent stage of European philosophy - scholasticism. Arab philosophy took over from the Greek idea of Plato and the Neoplatonists, and then Aristotle. It focused on metaphysics and formal logic. At the same time, the main goal of the Arab philosophy of this period was to substantiate the ideas of Islam. Among the prominent philosophers are al-Kindi, al-Farabi, Avicenna, Ibn-Rushd (Averroes), al-Ghazali.

With late scholasticism, medieval philosophy ends, which, despite the transformation of philosophy into a "servant of theology", left a deep mark on the development of historical and philosophical thought, preserving the continuity of intellectual skills developed by antiquity, creating a fairly systematized conceptual and terminological apparatus, presenting a number of new philosophical problems. and their decisions.

theocentrism soteriologism revelation of God plato

Literature

1. History of Philosophy: West - East - Russia: In 3 books. - M., 1995-1998.
2. History of Philosophy in Brief - M., 1981.
3. Mayorov G.G. Formation of medieval philosophy. - M., 1979.
4. Russell B. History of Western Philosophy: In 2 vols. - M., 1993.
5. Reale J., Antiseri D. Western Philosophy: from its origins to the present day: In 4 volumes - M., 1994-1997.
6. Sokolov V.V. medieval philosophy. - M., 1979.
7. Reader on the history of philosophy: In 2 hours - M., 1994.
8. Chanyshev A.N. Course of lectures on ancient and medieval philosophy. - M., 1991.
9. Shtekel A. History of Medieval Philosophy. - St. Petersburg, 1996.

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